Publications

BACKGROUND

Overdose prevention sites (OPSs) are spaces where individuals can use pre-obtained drugs and trained staff can immediately intervene in the event of an overdose. While some OPSs use a combination of naloxone and oxygen to reverse overdoses, little is known about oxygen as a complementary tool to naloxone in OPS settings. We conducted a mixed methods study to assess the role of oxygen provision at a locally sanctioned OPS in San Francisco, California.

METHODS

We used descriptive statistics to quantify number and type of overdose interventions delivered in 46 weeks of OPS operation in 2022. We used qualitative data from OPS staff interviews to evaluate experiences using oxygen during overdose responses. Interviews were coded and thematically analyzed to identify themes related to oxygen impact on overdose response.

RESULTS

OPS staff were successful in reversing 100% of overdoses (n = 333) during 46 weeks of operation. Oxygen became available 18 weeks after opening. After oxygen became available (n = 248 overdose incidents), nearly all involved oxygen (91.5%), with more than half involving both oxygen and naloxone (59.3%). Overdoses involving naloxone decreased from 98% to 66%, though average number of overdoses concomitantly increased from 5 to 9 per week. Interviews revealed that oxygen improved overdose response experiences for OPS participants and staff. OPS EMTs were leaders of delivering and refining the overdose response protocol and trained other staff. Challenges included strained relationships with city emergency response systems due to protocol requiring 911 calls after all naloxone administrations, inconsistent supplies, and lack of sufficient staffing causing people to work long shifts.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the OPS operated temporarily, it offered important insights. Ensuring consistent oxygen supplies, staffing, and removing 911 call requirements after every naloxone administration could improve resource management. These recommendations may enable success for future OPS in San Francisco and elsewhere.