Publications

PURPOSE

We examine whether the race and armed status interact to modify the risk of being fatally shot by police within categories of civilian age and mental illness status, and U.S. region.

METHODS

Data are from The Washington Post online public-use database of all U.S. police-involved shooting deaths. The sample includes black and white males with known armed status who were killed from 1/1/2015 through 12/31/2019 (n = 3090). A case-only design is used to assess multiplicative interaction using adjusted logistic regression.

RESULTS

The fully adjusted interaction estimate is null (S = 0.75; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.55-1.04). However, adjusted estimates within strata show that the risk of being armed versus unarmed when fatally shot is smaller for black than white males older than 54 years (S = 0.18; 95% CI = 0.06-0.65), those showing mental illness signs (S = 0.50; 95% CI = 0.26-0.98), and those killed in the South (S = 0.52; 95% CI = 0.33-0.83), and that the risk is greater in the Midwest (S = 2.42; 95% CI = 1.11-5.26). Notably, there is no black-white difference in armed status among younger age groups (S≈0.89).

CONCLUSION

The race and armed status may interact leaving black males at a higher risk of being unarmed than white males when fatally shot by police among those older than 54 years, mentally impaired, and residing in the South. Causal interaction suggests a lower risk for unarmed blacks in the Midwest. Researchers should further explore the utility of the case-only design to study social-environmental interaction.