Publications

Lipogenic diets that are completely devoid of methionine and choline (MCD) induce hepatic steatosis. MCD feeding also provokes systemic weight loss, for unclear reasons. In this study, we found that MCD feeding causes profound hepatic suppression of the gene encoding stearoyl-coenzyme A desaturase-1 (SCD-1), an enzyme whose regulation has significant effects on metabolic rate. Within 7 days of MCD exposure, hepatic SCD-1 mRNA decreased to nearly undetectable levels. By day 21, SCD-1 protein was absent from hepatic microsomes and fatty acids showed a decrease in monounsaturated species. These changes in hepatic SCD-1 were accompanied by signs of hypermetabolism. Calorimetry revealed that MCD-fed mice consumed 37% more energy than control mice (P = 0.0003). MCD feeding also stimulated fatty acid oxidation, although fatty oxidation genes were not significantly upregulated. Interestingly, despite their increased metabolic rate, MCD-fed mice did not increase their food consumption, and as a result, they lost 26% of their body weight in 21 days. In summary, MCD feeding suppresses SCD-1 in the liver, which likely contributes to hypermetabolism and weight loss. MCD feeding also induces hepatic steatosis, by an independent mechanism. Viewed together, these two disparate consequences of MCD feeding (weight loss and hepatic steatosis) give the appearance of an unusual form of lipodystrophy.

Keratinocytes require abundant cholesterol for cutaneous permeability barrier function; hence, the regulation of cholesterol homeostasis is of great importance. ABCA1 is a membrane transporter responsible for cholesterol efflux and plays a pivotal role in regulating cellular cholesterol levels. We demonstrate that ABCA1 is expressed in cultured human keratinocytes (CHKs) and murine epidermis. Liver X receptor (LXR) activation markedly stimulates ABCA1 mRNA and protein levels in CHKs and mouse epidermis. In addition to LXR, activators of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)alpha, PPARbeta/delta, and retinoid X receptor (RXR), but neither PPARgamma nor retinoic acid receptor, also increase ABCA1 expression in CHKs. Increases in cholesterol supply induced by LDL or mevalonate stimulate ABCA1 expression, whereas inhibiting cholesterol synthesis with statins or cholesterol sulfate decreases ABCA1 expression in CHKs. After acute permeability barrier disruption by either tape-stripping or acetone treatment, ABCA1 expression declines, and this attenuates cellular cholesterol efflux, making more cholesterol available for regeneration of the barrier. In addition, during fetal epidermal development, ABCA1 expression decreases at days 18-22 of gestation (term = 22 days), leaving more cholesterol available during the critical period of barrier formation. Together, our results show that ABCA1 is expressed in keratinocytes, where it is negatively regulated by a decrease in cellular cholesterol levels or altered permeability barrier requirements and positively regulated by activators of LXR, PPARs, and RXR or increases in cellular cholesterol levels.

BACKGROUND

Lipoprotein Lipase (LPL), a key enzyme in lipid metabolism, catalyzes the hydrolysis of triglycerides (TG) from TG-rich lipoproteins, and serves a bridging function that enhances the cellular uptake of lipoproteins. Abnormalities in LPL function are associated with pathophysiological conditions, including familial combined hyperlipidemia (FCH). Whereas two LPL susceptibility alleles were found to co-segregate in a few FCH kindred, a role for common, protective alleles remains unexplored. The LPL Ser447Stop (S447X) allele is associated with anti-atherogenic lipid profiles and a modest reduction in risk for coronary disease. We hypothesize that significant depletion of the 447X allele exists in combined hyperlipidemia cases versus controls. A case-control design was employed. The polymorphism was assessed by restriction assay in 212 cases and 161 controls. Genotypic, allelic, and phenotypic associations were examined.

RESULTS

We found evidence of significant allelic (447Xcontrol: 0.130 vs. 447Xcase: 0.031, chi2 = 29.085; 1df; p < 0.001) and genotypic association (SS: 0.745 vs. 0.939, and SX+XX: 0.255 vs. 0.061) in controls and cases, respectively (chi2 = 26.09; 1df; p < 0.001). In cases, depletion of the 447X allele is associated with a significant elevation in very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL-C, p = 0.045). Consonant with previous studies of this polymorphism, regression models predict that carriers of the 447X allele displayed significantly lower TG, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and TG/high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) ratio.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest a role for the S447X polymorphism in combined hyperlipidemia and demonstrate the importance of evaluating both susceptibility and protective genetic risk factors.